Theories of Attachment and Disorders

Theories of Attachment and Disorders Table of Contents (Jump to) Introduction Attachment and Separation Disorders of Attachment Conclusion Bibliography Introduction The demand for literature on parenting and child rearing has increased exponentially over the past few decades. Parents, teachings and other professionals are being coming increasingly aware of the importance of the early relationship between mother and infant in determining future success in intimate, social and professional relationships. Over the centuries there have been a number of approaches to parenting, some promoting a formal, distant relationship, encouraging independence. However, more recently the relationship between a child and his or her primary care-giver (particularly the mother) has been shown to form the corner stone of future emotional functioning. Bowlbys (1980) theory of infant attachment explains how an infants first experience with his or her mother influences the formation of mental representation of the self and of others. The representation of the self determines the individuals sense of self worth, of how worthy one feels of receiving love. The representat ion of others shapes how the individual interprets the world and others as being reliable and trustworthy, or unreliable and not to be trusted. The development of these cognitive processes is rooted in the style of attachment an infant forms with his or her mother. The follow essay will provide an overview of attachment processes and styles and will consider the long-term impact of these. Attachment and Separation The origins of attachment theory are heavily rooted in the observations of psychologist John Bowlby and the subsequent contributions of Mary Ainsworth and others. Attachment can be understood as the tone of affection that exists between two people (or animals) and is described by Bowlby (1969: 194) as the lasting psychological connectedness between human beings. According to Bowlby, this occurs when the relationship between the mother and infant is loving and intimate, and one from which both receive enjoyment and satisfaction. Attachment differs from bonding in that bonding entails the emotional feelings that a mother experiences for her infant and does not include an element of security. Kaplan and Sadock (1998) identify phases of attachment: 1. Pre-attachment Phase (birth – 12 weeks) – characterized by babies using their eyes to orientate themselves to their mother, following her with their eyes and turning towards her voice. 2. Attachment Making Phase (12 weeks – 6 months) – sees the infant developing an attachment to more than one person in their environment (eg. Mother and father). 3. Clear Cut Attachment Phase (6 months – 24 months) – the infant shows obvious signs of distress when removed from mother and seeks proximity with mother on her return and is easily soothed by her. 4. Fourth Phase (25 months and onwards) – the child views the mother as separate. Bowlby (1969) proposed that from birth an infant will constantly seek proximity to his or her mother so as to gain comfort and security. This seeking of proximity, according to Bowlby, can be partly explained as an attachment behavioral system based on the evolutionary process of natural selection. Accordingly, only those who maintain close proximity to their mother are safe from danger and more likely to survive the potential threats of their environment. Early studies by Harry Harlow (1958), a psychologist intrigued by love, relieved the attachment needs of monkeys. One particular study showed that young monkeys, removed at birth from their mother and then given the choice between a wire monkey offering food or a wire monkey covered in cloth (yet without food), would opt for the comfort of the soft wire monkey over food. This experiment showed that attachment is more than a need for food, but includes strong elements of a need for love and affection. According to Bowlby (1969, 1980) the affectional bond between mother and child has a far reaching impact, continuing throughout life. He identified four primary characteristics of attachments: 1. Safety – The carer provides the child with a safe haven; a place where he or she can return when feeling threatened. Here the child will receive acceptance and comfort in times of distress. 2. Security – The carer provides the child with a sense of security. The child feels confident to explore his or her environment. 3. Proximity – The child seeks to maintain close proximity to the carer; thereby maintaining a sense of safety and comfort. 4. Separation – When separated from the carer, the child becomes distressed and seeks proximity with the carer on his or her return and is readily soothed by him or her. Bowlby found that achieving satisfactory proximity in times of distress will result in feelings of relief, however, should the mother fail to respond to the infants attempts at receiving proximity (through crying), this will result in one of two secondary strategies: 1) Deactivation is the repression of attachment needs and avoidance of seeking proximity; 2) Hyperactivation is the continual, often unsuccessful and frustrating, attempts at attaining proximity. Bowlby (1969, 1980) highlights the importance of the quality of the mothers responsiveness and sensitivity to the infants needs in the formation of healthy, secure attachment styles. A mother who responds with sensitivity to her infants cries helps the infant contain his or her anxieties, and mirrors for the infant emotional regulation. Later, the child will be able to be a container for his or her own emotions. Bowlby (1969, 1980) explains how a responsive mother provides a secure base for the child to explore his or her enviro nment free of fear and anxiety. However, an insensitive or inconsistent mother creates, for the child, a sense of insecurity evoking feelings of anxiety and avoidance behavior. Mary Ainsworth, a colleague of Bowlby, built on Bowlbys theory. Ainsworth observed the significant influence the early attachment between mother and baby had on present and future behavior. This researcher, for example, found that by soothing a baby when they cry reduced future crying behavior. Also, Ainsworth found that secure attachment reduced anxiety and that bodily contact between mother and baby nurtured the development of future self-reliance as apposed to clinging behavior (Ainsworth, 1985). Ainsworth, Blehar, Walters and Walls (1978) undertook a study to explore Bowlbys theory. These researchers developed a study called the Stranger Situation, which sought to observe the attachment related behavior of infants when separated from and later reunited with their mother. The process of the stranger situation involved the mother and child initially being placed in the same room; a stranger would then enter the room while the mother left. The stranger would then leave the room and the mother would return and comfort her child. Again the mother would leave and the stranger would return. Finally, the mother would return to the room and comfort her child. Based on the childs behavior through this process, Ainsworth and colleagues were able to identify three distinct attachment styles: 1. Secure Attachment – A securely attached child will be seen to freely explore his or her environment in the presence of his or her mother. When the mother leaves, this child will show obvious distress and will seek proximity with his or her mother on her return, being readily comforted by her. 2. Avoidant Attachment – Children who failed to seek proximity to his or her mother were identified has having an avoidant attachment style. These children were seen as exhibiting little range in affect, and did not respond with distress when the mother left and showed little interest on her return. These children would resort to the secondary strategy of deactivation. 3. Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment – Children with this attachment style also failed to seek proximity with his or her mother, but resorted to the secondary strategy of hyperactivation. Ainsworth (1978) and colleagues were further able to identify the types of mother-child relationships associated with these attachment styles. Securely attached children were found to have mothers who are attuned and sensitive to her childs emotional as well as physical needs. She formed a secure base for her child and helped regulate stress and emotional disease. Mothers of children with avoidant attachment styles would respond with little concern to their childs distress, and rather than comfort them, she would discourage the childs attempts at achieving proximity and encourage independence. Finally, ambivalently attached child had mothers who responded inconsistently to their children. At times they would respond attentively and provide comfort; yet at other times she would discourage the crying behavior and ignore the childs attempts at proximity. These attachment styles differ slightly in adulthood, with four types being identified: sure, preoccupied, fearful-avoidant and dismissing-avoidant. These types differ to those identified by Ainsworth mainly in the distinction between fearful-avoidant and dismissing-avoidant. An individual showing a dismissing-avoidant style maintains a positive view of self and a negative view of others, while those with a fearful-avoidant styles holds a negative view of both self and others. Main, Kaplan and Cassidy (1985) were the first to demonstrate how early attachment styles, formed during infancy, are generalised to an individuals future relationships in adulthood. These researchers described how mental representations of the self and others, formed in infancy, are used to predict and interpret attachment-related situations. According to this line of thought, a person who experienced rejection in infancy will carry this experience into adult relationships. They will feel unworthy of love, and moreover, that others are incapable of loving them. Attachment styles are also shown to influence such things as self-esteem, self-efficacy and socializing abilities. In a study by Kaplan and Sadock (1998) these researchers show how securely attached adolescents are more socially adjusted than those with avoidant or anxious/ambivalent attachment styles. Furthermore, these researchers note how low self-esteem, poor social relatedness, and emotional vulnerability to stress are associated with insecure attachments during the first year of life (147). The development of theory of mind is also impeded in attachment theory. Theory of mind is the understanding that each person has heir own, separate beliefs, ideas and mental states. Furthermore, it is the ability to predict, with a large degree of accuracy, how another person may feel or respond in certain situations. For example, a person having theory of mind would accurately predict how a person may feel should they fail in an important exam. The development of theory of mind or mentalizing capacity is directly dependant on secure attachment. A mother who responds consistently with love and acceptance to her infants cry demonstrates to the infant that they have understood them and that they are in tune with their needs. This mother has demonstrated that she is able to infer the thoughts and needs of her child. The child then learns this from the mother. This ability to make accurate inferences and to envisage the emotional experiences of others is crucial for health psychological and psychosocial functioning (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist and Targer, 2005). Disorders of Attachment As previously noted, unstable or unhealthy attachment is a result of maternal disregard, where a mother is seen to be dismissive, unresponsive, and lacking in warmth and consistency. People having an avoidant or anxious/ambivalent attachment style experience problems in developing and maintaining relationships, in communicating with others, trusting in others, feeling unworthy of love. This deprivation results in disorders of attachment including such things as failure-to-thrive syndromes, psychosocial dwarfism, separation anxiety disorder, avoidant personality disorder, depressive disorders, delinquency, academic problems, and borderline intelligence (Kaplan Sadock, 1998: 147). These resulting problems highlight some of the adverse effects of a deprived relationship between mother and child. Conclusion John Bowlbys theory of attachment has challenged some of the traditional beliefs on parenting, such as: crying babies should be left alone, holding a baby too much will result in clinging behavior, attending to a distressed baby will result in over dependence. Still today, some of these outdate beliefs are held by many. However, research into the area of attachment has revealed a very different picture. The tenderness of the relationship between mother and child has been shown as being paramount to the healthy development on emotional, social, psychological and even educational levels. Children require physical warmth, love, affection, consistency and understanding in order to develop a positive sense of self, trust in the world, confidence to explore the world and a belief in others. Children learn from their mother, from the very time of birth, what to think of the world, who they are in the world, what to expect from the world and what the world expects from them. Bibliography Ainsworth, M.S. (1985). Attachment across the life-span. Academic Medicine, 61, 792. Ainsworth, M. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., Wall, 5. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bowlby, J. (1969), Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss. New York: Basic Books. Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E.L., Target, M. (2005). Affect Regulation, Mentalization, and the Development of the Self. London: Karnac. Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673-685. Kaplan, H.I., Sadock, B.J. (1998). Synopsis of Psychiatry: Behavioral Science/Clinical Psychiatry (8th Ed). Lippincott, Williams Wilkins, Maryland. Main, M., Kaplan, N., Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 66-104.

Plot Summary I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings follows Marguerite's (called â€Å"My† or â€Å"Maya† by her brother) life from the age of three to seventeen and the struggles she faces – particularly with racism – in the Southern United States. Abandoned by their parents, Maya and her older brother Bailey are sent to live with their paternal grandmother (Momma) and crippled uncle (Uncle Willie) in Stamps, Arkansas. Maya and Bailey are haunted by their parents' abandonment throughout the book – they travel alone and are labeled like baggage. [20] The community of Stamps, Arkansas, is the setting for most of the book. Many of the problems Maya encounters in her childhood stem from the overt racism of her white neighbors. Although Momma is relatively wealthy because she owns the general store at the heart of Stamps' Black community, the white children of their town hassle Maya's family relentlessly. One of these â€Å"powhitetrash† girls, for example, reveals her pubic hair to Momma in a humiliating incident. Early in the book, Momma hides Uncle Willie in a vegetable bin to protect him from Ku Klux Klan raiders. Maya has to endure the insult of her name being changed to Mary by a racist employer. A white speaker at her eighth grade graduation ceremony disparages the Black audience by suggesting that they have limited job opportunities. A white dentist refuses to treat Maya's rotting tooth, even when Momma reminds him that she had loaned him money during the Depression. The Black community of Stamps enjoys a moment of racial victory when they listen to the radio broadcast of Joe Louis's championship fight, but generally they feel the heavy weight of racist oppressions. A turning point in the book occurs when Maya and Bailey's father unexpectedly appears in Stamps. He takes the two children with him when he departs, but leaves them with their mother in St. Louis, Missouri. Eight-year-old Maya is sexually abused and raped by her mother's boyfriend, Mr. Freeman. He is found guilty during the trial, but escapes jail time and is murdered, probably by Maya's uncles. Maya feels guilty and withdraws from everyone but her brother. Even after returning to Stamps, Maya remains reclusive and nearly mute until she meets Mrs. Bertha Flowers, â€Å"the aristocrat of Black Stamps†,[21] who supplies her with books to encourage her love of reading. This coaxes Maya out of her shell. Later, Momma decides to send her grandchildren to their mother in San Francisco, California, to protect them from the dangers of racism in Stamps. Maya attends George Washington High School and studies dance and drama on a scholarship at the California Labor School. Before graduating, she becomes the first Black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco. While still in high school, Maya visits her father in southern California one summer, and has some experiences pivotal to her development. She drives a car for the first time when she must transport her intoxicated father home from an excursion to Mexico. She experiences homelessness for a short time after a fight with her father's girlfriend. During Maya's final year of high school, she worries that she might be a lesbian (which she equates with being a hermaphrodite), and initiates sexual intercourse with a teenage boy. She becomes pregnant, and on the advice of her brother, she hides from her family until her eighth month of pregnancy in order to graduate from high school. Maya gives birth at the end of the book and begins her journey to adulthood by accepting her role as mother to her newborn son. ird sings

Hiroshima and Nagasaki A Justified End to an Endless War

Hiroshima and Nagasaki: A Justified End to an Endless War On December 7th, 1941 the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan. This unprovoked assault on our nation’s soil forced Congress to take action with a formal declaration of war on Japan. With the country’s entry into World War II, a secret venture was implemented by the government. The clandestine project would employ some of the greatest scientific minds in history, including renowned physicists Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein. The plan was codenamed, â€Å"Manhattan,† and its goal was the development and production of the most destructive weapon known to man: the atomic bomb. Over the course of the next four years, from December 1941 to July 1945,†¦show more content†¦Truman, that the decision on the first use of atomic weapons fell† (41). At this point in the war the Manhattan Project was just three months away from its first successful test and the w ar in Europe was coming to a close. However, despite having some limited knowledge, President Truman was relatively unaware of the true potential that the Manhattan Project possessed. Alonzo Hamby states that, â€Å"Harry S. Truman had been President of the United States for less than two weeks on April 25th, 1945, when Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson delivered to him a full report on the most extensive and secret American enterprise of the Second World War† (19). Consequently, numerous meetings about the bombs, casualty predictions, and targets were held in an effort to quickly inform the new President about the various capabilities of nuclear warfare (Kross 41). Although the bombs offered the promise of a quick victory, there were also a multitude of meetings with Truman regarding options that did not include the weapons. The main alternatives discussed were blockades and other more passive methods of weakening Japan. However, these approaches would have been extreme ly time consuming, led to a drawn-out conflict, and caused more deaths as cited by an author in American Heritage who states, â€Å"What often goes unremarked is that when the bombs were dropped, fighting was still going on in the Philippines, China, and elsewhere. EveryShow MoreRelatedThe Rights Of Man And Of The Citizen2592 Words   |  11 PagesIn 1938, at the beginning of the second world war, the population of the world was 2.3 billion people. Of those 2.3 billion, 60 million people died. That is 0.2 percent of the population. Of this 0.2 percent, .07 died in the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. That is 220,000 people. Human rights are the rights that every person is born with. During the time of the enlightenment, the terms of human rights were outlined. Since then, laws have been passed detailing the correct treatmentRead MoreThe Japanese War Of Japan1971 Words   |  8 Pagesand dishonoring their country and empire . This inherent Japanese nature justified why the Japanese seldom used reason when making war time decisions. Although the Japanese were in dire straits they initially showed no intention of surrendering. Not using the atomic bomb would have forced the United States to launch a full invasion of Japan’s home islands, and this would have killed far more people than Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The March 1945 firebombing of Tokyo alone killed some 120,000 JapaneseRead MoreEssay about nuclear weapons advocate peace2192 Words   |  9 Pageshave lived since 1945 without another world war precisely because rational minds†¦extracted a durable peace from the very terror of nuclear weapons.† (Luttwak, 1983). Moreover, Robert Art and Kenneth Waltz both extrapolate that â€Å"the probability of war between American and Russia or between NATO and the Warsaw Pact is practically nil precisely because the military planning and deployments of each, together with the fear of escalation to general nuclear war, keep it that way .† (Art, Waltz, 1983) YetRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pages Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History Jack Metzgar, Striking Steel: Solidarity Remembered Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD Allen Hunter, ed., Rethinking the Cold War Eric Foner, ed., The New American History. Revised and Expanded Edition E SSAYS ON _ T WENTIETH- C ENTURY H ISTORY Edited by Michael Adas for the American Historical Association TEMPLE UNIVERSITY PRESS PHILADELPHIA Temple

Business Plan for a Nightclub Essay - 1449 Words

Business Plan for a Nightclub LEVEL 3 plans to be a chain of upscale nightclubs centering around the middle Georgia areas. It is demographically targeted to middle aged adult’s ages ranging from 25 and up. LEVEL 3 aims at providing quality entertainment, food and refreshments along with a welcoming environment that will give our customers a unique and entertaining experience. Company Overview This company evolved through a partnership on January 19th 2005. LEVEL 3 is located in Perry, Georgia and caters to the surrounding Middle Georgia areas. The company plans to attract upscale and mature customers whose ages range from 25 and older. LEVEL 3 will be the premier, high-energy themed dance and night club in Middle Georgia. We will†¦show more content†¦Service Plan LEVEL 3 will specialize in high energy themes and a gaming area, and will offer beer, wine and an array of liquors and mixed drinks. In addition, the business will sell non-alcoholic beverages such as soft drinks, juices and bottled water. A casual food menu consisting mostly of appetizers and small entrees such as nachos, wings, quesadillas, chicken tenders, fries and onion rings. The food will range in cost from three to nine dollars. Menu Nachos $4.00 Wings 5 for $3.00 10 for $6.00 20 for $9.00 Quesadillas $6.00 Chicken Tenders 5 for $3.00 10 for $6.00 20 for $9.00 French Fries Small $2.50 Large $3.50 Onion Rings Small $2.50 Large $3.50 Side Salad $4.75 Beer $3.00 Mixed Drinks $3.00-$7.00 Bottled Water $1.00 Soft Drinks $1.00 Juice $2.00 Management Plan The management team is an especially close one. All of the managers graduated from Fort Valley State University with a bachelors degree in business management. The managers have communicated very often with each since school. The two co-presidents have worked directly together for three years at different companies. One of the presidents has worked with the bar manager in the past and has known her for nearly five years. Together we share a single vision: to provide a unique and entertaining experience through exceptional service. The company will have six managers, including two presidents, one viceShow MoreRelated Sample Nigthclub Business Plan Essay874 Words   |  4 Pages Sample Nightclub Business Plan (www.bplans.com) BackgroundSummary The generation of today has a lot of focus on leisure and off-time. They are looking for ways to escape their everyday lives and let loose. Whether that is dancing to new age music, having a few cocktails, or dining out with reasonably priced food. A nightclub can provide all these accommodations, and is the perfect venue to open up is done with some thoughtful planning. There are some important elements to consider. Location isRead MoreOpening a Nightclub for the Over 21 Crowd1418 Words   |  6 Pagesdetermine the feasibility of opening up a nightclub that caters to people over 21 years old. This nightclub is of interest to the author because she is very passionate about it and this type of business had always been the author’s dream. This chapter will discuss the relevant literature related to a) Customer service, b) License for restaurants and bars, and c) Types of entertainment. Review of Literature Customer service The author knows that a business will not succeed if the employees doRead MoreEssay about Creating a Business Plan1119 Words   |  5 Pagesyou must have guidelines, so to speak, to know where you are heading in the future. That is why before you can start a business you need to draw up a detailed business plan. Business plans are considered blueprints. A business plan is what is needed to get your business off the ground and to attract potential investors. A business plan is way to show that you are in the business to make money. Introduce the company and the product/service idea for the new venture. Triple S Night Club is a new companyRead MoreCase Study Bon Appetit766 Words   |  4 Pagespresent management’s time and energy. III. Cast of characters Bon Appetit pls (UK): Type of business: a chain of restaurants offering top class cuisine Starlight plc (UK): Type of business: Ground floor restaurant + cabaret nightclub Mario Ferrino (Italy): Type of business: Delicatessen selling wide range of luxury food and drinks; Family owned company Coffee Ground PLC (London, UK): Type of business: Coffee shop serving drinks (mainly coffee) and food; Main customers: young and medium age peopleRead MoreNight Club Operation Management Journal5510 Words   |  23 Pagesindustry: How Nightclubs may measure Customer Satisfaction and how the industry may add business value and create competitive advantage by using Six Sigma model – The â€Å"Breeze† Nightclub case study.† By Kostas E. Sillignakis CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1.0 THE â€Å"BREEZE† NIGHTCLUB CASE STUDY 2.0 MANAGEMENT SYSTEM DESIGN 2.1 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 3.0 THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS MODEL 3.1 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT CYCLE 3.2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES 4.0 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN NIGHTCLUB INDUSTRY 5.0Read MoreThe Change Management Plan Outlined2049 Words   |  9 Pages 1.0 Introduction â€Å"Provocations Nightclub† (aka Provocations) is on the precipice of transforming itself from an upscale nightclub to a high-end adult entertainment establishment. This report has been compiled in order to directly communicate appropriate strategies for the upcoming transformation of Provocations. The change management plan outlined will address the strategies, skills and structure (Carter, 2008) within the organisation and who will be affected; planning processes within the organisationalRead MoreLas Vegas : A Reputation For Being The Major Place For Events1280 Words   |  6 Pagesto offer you will want to do it all. Dance, sports, magic, comedy, hypnosis, tribute act, impersonations, plays musicals, adult, music, productions and other special events. Destination Research Summary On the Forbes Lists of Best Places for Business and Careers Las Vegas was ranked #111.When it comes to meetings and events, there’s no place like Las Vegas. DestinationMAP XV, published in 2013 ranks Las Vegas number 1 in quite a few areas. Number 1 for being good for large trade shows, internationalRead MoreKiller Show By John Barylick1844 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction: The book assigned to me for this assignment was Killer Show by John Barylick. It s an informative non-fictional book. It tells the real life tragedy of the fatal â€Å"Station† nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island. The story is told using flashbacks and analysis in each chapter of the book. Before I started reading this book I was intrigued because the main events in this story are in the 21st century. This is unlike the other books that could have been assigned to me. The dateRead MoreKiller Show By John Barylick1923 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction: The book assigned to me for this assignment was Killer Show by John Barylick. It s an informative non-fictional book. It tells the real life tragedy of the fatal â€Å"Station† nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island. The story is told using flashbacks and analysis in each chapter of the book. Before I started reading this book I was intrigued because the main events in this story are in the 21st century. This is unlike the other books that could have been assigned to me. The dateRead MoreAssessment BSBMKG506B Plan Market Research CAROLINE CAMARGO PRATES4127 Words   |  17 Pagesï » ¿ BSBMKG506B Plan market research 2014 Course handout and assessment Student name/number Caroline Camargo Prates BUSINESS – DIPLOMA OF MARKETING 51207 Unit: BSBMKG506B Plan market research assessment 1,2,3 Student’s name (print please) CAROLINE CAMARG PRATES Due date Assessment hand in Student Signature Date 1st resit Trainers Signature Date 2nd resit Trainers Signature Overall Competency Achieved C/NYC Date Achieved Trainers Signature I ____________________ declare